Amnesty International Canada v. Canada (Attorney General)

Amnesty International Canada v. Canada (Attorney General)
Court (s) Database
Federal Court Decisions
Date
2008-03-12
Neutral citation
2008 FC 336
File numbers
T-324-07
Notes
Reported Decision
Decision Content
Date: 20080312
Docket: T-324-07
Citation: 2008 FC 336
Ottawa, Ontario, March 12, 2008
PRESENT: The Honourable Madam Justice Mactavish
BETWEEN:
AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL CANADA and
BRITISH COLUMBIA CIVIL LIBERTIES ASSOCIATION
Applicants
and
CHIEF OF THE DEFENCE STAFF
FOR THE CANADIAN FORCES,
MINISTER OF NATIONAL DEFENCE and
ATTORNEY GENERAL OF CANADA
Respondents
REASONS FOR ORDER AND ORDER
MOTION PURSUANT TO RULE 107
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PARA.
I. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 5
II. BACKGROUND.......................................................................................................... 17
a) The Authority for Canada’s Military Presence in Afghanistan.................................. 20
i) Individual and Collective Self-Defence.......................................................... 22
ii) The United Nations Mandate........................................................................ 27
iii) The Consent of the Government of Afghanistan............................................. 40
b) The Canadian Forces’ Detention of Individuals in Afghanistan................................. 53
III. SHOULD THE COURT ANSWER THE QUESTIONS POSED?................................ 87
IV. DOES THE CANADIAN CHARTER OF RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS
APPLY DURING THE ARMED CONFLICT IN AFGHANISTAN
TO THE DETENTION OF NON-CANADIANS BY THE
CANADIAN FORCES OR THEIR TRANSFER TO AFGHAN
AUTHORITIES TO BE DEALT WITH BY THOSE AUTHORITIES?......................... 100
a) Section 32(1) of the Charter.................................................................................. 101
b) R. v. Hape............................................................................................................ 108
c) Has the Government of Afghanistan Consented to the Application of
Canadian law, Including the Charter?..................................................................... 151
d) “Effective Military Control of the Person” as a Test for Charter
Jurisdiction............................................................................................................ 187
e) Conclusion with Respect to the First Question....................................................... 299
V. IF THE ANSWER TO THE ABOVE QUESTION IS “NO” THEN
WOULD THE CHARTER NONETHELESS APPLY IF THE
APPLICANTS WERE ULTIMATELY ABLE TO ESTABLISH
THAT THE TRANSFER OF THE DETAINEES IN QUESTION
WOULD EXPOSE THEM TO A SUBSTANTIAL RISK OF TORTURE?................ 303
VI. CONCLUSION............................................................................................................ 329
VII. ORDER......................................................................................................................... 350
[1] The issue to be determined on this motion is whether the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms applies to the conduct of Canadian Forces personnel in relation to individuals detained by the Canadian Forces in Afghanistan, and the transfer of those individuals to the custody of Afghan authorities.
[2] For the reasons that follow, I have concluded that while detainees held by the Canadian Forces in Afghanistan have the rights accorded to them under the Afghan Constitution and by international law, and, in particular, by international humanitarian law, they do not have rights under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
[3] Furthermore, although the actions of the Canadian Forces in Afghanistan in relation to the detention of non-Canadian individuals are governed by numerous international legal instruments, and may also be governed by Canadian law in certain clearly defined circumstances, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms does not apply to the conduct in issue in this case.
[4] As the application for judicial review rests exclusively on the Charter for its legal foundation, it follows that the application must be dismissed.
I. INTRODUCTION
[5] Amnesty International Canada and the British Columbia Civil Liberties Association (“the applicants”) have brought an application for judicial review with respect to “the transfers, or potential transfers, of individuals detained by the Canadian Forces deployed in the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan”.
[6] Although the applicants are not directly affected by the transfers, the Court has previously found that they satisfy all three components of the test for public interest standing established by the Supreme Court of Canada in cases such as Chaouilli v. Quebec (Attorney General), [2005] 1 S.C.R. 791, 2005 SCC 35 and Finlay v. Canada (Minister of Finance), [1986] 2 S.C.R. 607. As a consequence, the applicants were granted public interest standing to pursue this matter: see Amnesty International Canada et al. v. Canada (Canadian Forces), [2007] F.C.J. No. 1460, 2007 FC 1147, at &34-52 (Amnesty #1).
[7] The applicants allege that the formal arrangements which have been entered into by Canada and Afghanistan do not provide adequate substantive or procedural safeguards to ensure that individuals transferred into the custody of the Afghan authorities, as well as those who may be transferred on to the custody of third countries, are not exposed to a substantial risk of torture.
[8] The applicants ask for a declaration that sections 7, 10 and 12 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms apply to individuals detained by the Canadian Forces in Afghanistan. They further seek various forms of declaratory relief relating to the alleged breaches of detainees’ Charter rights.
[9] The applicants also seek a writ of prohibition preventing the transfer of detainees captured by the Canadian Forces to Afghan authorities, or to the custody of any other country, until such time as adequate substantive and procedural safeguards have been put into place.
[10] Finally, the applicants ask for a writ of mandamus compelling the respondents to enquire into the status of detainees previously transferred to Afghan authorities, and requiring the respondents to demand the return of these individuals.
[11] Named as a respondent to this application is General Rick J. Hillier - the Chief of the Defence Staff for the Canadian Forces. The other respondents are the Minister of National Defence and the Attorney General of Canada.
[12] As was noted above, the applicants’ application for judicial review relies entirely on the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms for its legal foundation. The parties thus agree that if the Charter does not apply to the conduct of the Canadian Forces in issue in this case, it necessarily follows that the application for judicial review must be dismissed.
[13] To assist in resolving this dispute in a timely and efficient manner, the parties have jointly agreed to have the issue of whether the Charter applies in the context Canada’s military involvement in the armed conflict in Afghanistan determined on the basis of the following questions, pursuant to Rule 107(1) of the Federal Courts Rules:
1. Does the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms apply during the armed conflict in Afghanistan to the detention of non-Canadians by the Canadian Forces or their transfer to Afghan authorities to be dealt with by those authorities?
2. If the answer to the above question is "NO" then would the Charter nonetheless apply if the Applicants were ultimately able to establish that the transfer of the detainees in question would expose them to a substantial risk of torture?
[14] The parties further agree that not only is it in the interests of justice to proceed in this manner, but that all of the evidence necessary to determine the answers to the questions identified above is currently available to the Court, notwithstanding that access to certain information sought by the applicants has been refused by the respondents on the grounds of national security and international relations. These requests for disclosure are currently the subject of proceedings under section 38 of the Canada Evidence Act.
[15] Finally, the parties agree that for the purposes of this motion, the Court is to limit its consideration to the jurisdictional questions identified above. No consideration is to be given at this stage in the proceedings as to whether any of the sections of the Charter relied upon by the applicants are actually engaged on the facts of this case.
[16] For the reasons that follow, I have determined that the answer to both of the questions posed by the motion is “No”. As a result, the applicants’ application for judicial review must therefore be dismissed.
II. BACKGROUND
[17] In order to address the parties’ arguments, it is first necessary to have an understanding of the mandate and role of the Canadian Forces in Afghanistan in relation to the non-international armed conflict currently taking place in that country.
[18] It is also necessary to have an understanding of the arrangements that have been entered into between Canada and Afghanistan with respect to the treatment of detainees, and the role and responsibilities of each of the two countries in this regard.
[19] Each of these issues will be addressed in turn, starting with a consideration of the authority for Canada’s military presence in Afghanistan.
a) The Authority for Canada’s Military Presence in Afghanistan
[20] The legal authority for Canada’s military presence in Afghanistan has evolved over time, but currently rests upon three distinct, but interrelated, legal bases.
[21] These are the principles individual and collective self-defence, United Nations Security Council Resolutions, and the consent of the sovereign state of Afghanistan. The emergence and development of each of these bases will be discussed below.
i) Individual and Collective Self-Defence
[22] Canada’s initial military involvement in Afghanistan took place in the context of an international armed conflict in that country. The original legal basis for Canada’s participation in the conflict in Afghanistan was the exercise by Canada of this country’s right of self-defence.
[23] Immediately following the tragic events in New York, Washington and Pennsylvania on September 11, 2001, the United Nations Security Council issued Security Council Resolutions 1368 and 1373 which “recognized” and “reaffirmed” the inherent right of individual and collective self-defence, in accordance with the provisions of the United Nations Charter.
[24] The North Atlantic Treaty Organization also recognized that an armed attack against one or more member States was to be viewed as an attack against all NATO members.
[25] In this context, on October 24, 2001, Canada informed the United Nations Security Council that it would be joining with the United States in deploying military forces into Afghanistan in the exercise of its inherent right of self defence. Canada’s military involvement in Afghanistan was originally as a participant in the American-led Operation Enduring Freedom (“OEF”).
[26] Some Canadian military personnel remain in Afghanistan as part of OEF, in part in the continued exercise of Canada’s right of self defence. However, since the emergence of the democratically-elected Afghan government as a coalition partner in 2003, OEF is also now in Afghanistan with the consent of that government.
ii) The United Nations Mandate
[27] On December 20, 2001, after the defeat of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, United Nations Security Council Resolution 1386 was passed authorizing the creation of an International Security and Assistance Force (“ISAF”) for Afghanistan.
[28] ISAF is a multinational force under NATO command, which has been deployed to assist the Government of Afghanistan in restoring peace and security in that country.
[29] ISAF was originally established for a period of six months, and was intended to assist the Afghan Interim Authority in the maintenance of security in Kabul and surrounding areas. However, successive United Nations Security Council resolutions have extended the mandate of ISAF, both geographically and temporally, on the basis that the situation in Afghanistan constitutes an on-going threat to international peace and security.
[30] ISAF currently operates under the mandate conferred upon it by Security Council Resolution 1776, which has extended the ISAF mandate until October of 2008. There are currently some 37 countries contributing to ISAF.
[31] At this point, Canada has approximately 2,500 Canadian Forces personnel in Afghanistan, primarily as part of the ISAF mission. The majority of Canadian Forces personnel are deployed in Kandahar province. Other Canadian government personnel are also currently stationed in Afghanistan, including employees of the Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade.
[32] The respondents’ position is that while Canada retains operational command over Canadian Forces personnel within ISAF, it is NATO, not Canada, that has operational control over ISAF Forces. That said, it appears that Canadian operational command ultimately takes precedence over NATO’s operational control.
[33] In this regard, Colonel Stephen P. Noonan, the head of the Canadian Forces’ Operations Branch (J3) of the Canadian Expeditionary Force Command Headquarters testified that:
Operational command is retained by national authorities and operational control is given to ISAF … As we place our forces under operational control of NATO, we have come to an agreement with NATO that the mission in Afghanistan is congruent with Canadian aims and that NATO can assign tasks to our forces in the attainment of that mission, however, that national command overrides that and therefore the duties that are assigned to the Canadian Forces ISAF personnel in Afghanistan need to remain consistent with our direction, Canadian direction, so therefore we always hold the ability to say no to military tasks. [transcript of the cross-examination of Col. Noonan, at question 46, emphasis added]
[34] In furtherance of this reporting structure, the Canadian Commander of Joint Task Force-Afghanistan reports both to the Commander of ISAF through Commander Regional Command South, and nationally to the Commander of the Canadian Forces, Expeditionary Forces Command (“CEFCOM”).
[35] Member States participating in ISAF, including Canada, have been authorized to take “all necessary measures” to fulfil ISAF’s mandate: see United Nations Security Council Resolution 1386, at ¶3, and Resolution 1776, at ¶2.
[36] These Resolutions thus authorize ISAF military personnel to use all necessary force in carrying out their mission.
[37] The United Nations Security Council has, however, expressly recognized that the primary responsibility for maintaining security and law and order in Afghanistan rests with the government of Afghanistan established after the overthrow of the Taliban regime. ISAF is in Afghanistan to assist the Government of Afghanistan in that task.
[38] The mandate conferred by the Security Council Resolutions referred to above does not apply to those members of the Canadian Forces currently deployed in Afghanistan, outside the framework of ISAF, including those members of the Canadian Forces deployed as part of OEF.
[39] That said, the parties agree that for the purposes of analysis required by this motion, there is no difference between the circumstances and status of Canadian Forces deployed as part of OEF, and those deployed as part of ISAF.
iii) The Consent of the Government of Afghanistan
[40] While Canada initially went into Afghanistan with the goal of overthrowing the Taliban regime then in power in that country, Canada and its NATO partners are now in Afghanistan with the consent of that country’s democratically-elected government. This government has been recognized by the international community as the legitimate government of Afghanistan.
[41] This consent is reflected in documents such as the Afghan Compact, an agreement reached between the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan and the international community on February 1, 2006.
[42] Amongst other things, the Afghan Compact provides that:
Genuine security remains a fundamental prerequisite for achieving stability and development in Afghanistan. Security cannot be provided by military means alone. It requires good governance, justice and the rule of law, reinforced by reconstruction and development. With the support of the international community, the Afghan Government will consolidate peace by disbanding all illegal armed groups. The Afghan Government and the international community will create a secure environment by strengthening Afghan institutions to meet the security needs of the country in a fiscally sustainable manner.
To that end, the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), the US-led Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) and partner nations involved in security sector reform will continue to provide strong support to the Afghan Government in establishing and sustaining security and stability in Afghanistan, subject to participating states' national approval procedures. They will continue to strengthen and develop the capacity of the national security forces to ensure that they become fully functional. All OEF counter-terrorism operations will be conducted in close coordination with the Afghan Government and ISAF. ISAF will continue to expand its presence throughout Afghanistan, including through Provincial Reconstruction Teams (PRTs), and will continue to promote stability and support security sector reforms in its areas of operation.
Full respect for Afghanistan's sovereignty and strengthening dialogue and cooperation between Afghanistan and its neighbors constitute an essential guarantee of stability in Afghanistan and the region. The international community will support concrete confidence-building measures to this end. [at p. 3]
[43] The Afghan Compact has been endorsed by the United Nations Security Council through Resolutions 1659 and 1707. Resolution 1707 described the Compact as providing “the framework for the partnership between the Afghan government and the international community”.
[44] Even before the Afghan Compact was concluded, the governments of Canada and Afghanistan had signed a document outlining the nature of Canada’s involvement and powers within Afghanistan: see the “Technical Arrangements between the Government of Canada and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan”, dated December 18, 2005.
[45] The Technical Arrangements are intended to cover Canadian activities in Afghanistan including, amongst other things, assistance in the armed conflict, stabilization, training of the Afghan military, and assistance to law enforcement authorities.
[46] It is clearly recognized in the Technical Arrangements that, in light of the credible threat to Canadian personnel, such personnel may take “such measures as are considered necessary to ensure the accomplishment of their operational objectives”: at ¶11.
[47] The Technical Arrangements further provide that:
Canadian personnel may need to use force (including deadly force) to ensure the accomplishment of their operational objectives, the safety of the deployed force, including designated persons, designated property, and designated locations. Such measures could include the use of close air support, firearms or other weapons; the detention of persons; and the seizure of arms and other materiel. Detainees would be afforded the same treatment as Prisoners of War. Detainees would be transferred to Afghan authorities in a manner consistent with international law and subject to negotiated assurances regarding their treatment and transfer. [emphasis added, at ¶12]
[48] Under the Technical Arrangements, the final authority to interpret the Arrangements is expressly reserved to the Canadian military Commander in Afghanistan.
[49] Canada has also signed a “Status of Forces Arrangement”, which forms an annex to the Technical Arrangements. Article 1.1 of this document provides that Canadian personnel are subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of Canadian authorities in relation to any criminal or disciplinary offences which may be committed by them in Afghanistan.
[50] Article 1.2 of the Status of Forces Arrangement further provides that the Government of Canada will take measures to ensure that all Canadian personnel “will respect international law and will refrain from activities not compatible with the nature of their operations or their status in Afghanistan”.
[51] After reiterating that Canadian personnel are immune from personal arrest or detention, unless the senior Canadian military Commander consents to such treatment, the Status of Forces Arrangement states that “[i]n giving effect to the Arrangements, the Participants will at all times act in a manner consistent with their obligations under international law”: see Article 1.4.
[52] The Technical Arrangements and the two Arrangements entered into by Canada and Afghanistan with respect to the transfer of detainees (which will be discussed below), reflect the consent of the Government of Afghanistan to the operation of the Canadian Forces on Afghan territory for the purposes identified in the documents.
b) The Canadian Forces’ Detention of Individuals in Afghanistan
[53] As part of Canada’s military operations in Afghanistan, Canadian Forces are from time to time required to capture and detain insurgents, or those assisting the insurgents, who may pose a threat to the safety of Afghan nationals, as well as to members of the Canadian military and allied forces.
[54] The Canadian Forces possess a broad discretion to detain Afghan civilians, including individuals who may have no active role in hostilities.
[55] That is, Canadian Task Force Afghanistan’s Theatre Standing Order 321A regarding the “Detention of Afghan Nationals and Other Persons” provides that the Canadian Forces may detain any person on a “reasonable belief” (defined as “neither mere speculation nor absolute certainty”) that he or she is adverse in interest. This includes “persons who are themselves not taking a direct part in hostilities, but who are reasonably believed to be providing support in respect of acts harmful to the CF / Coalition Forces”.
[56] Under Theatre Standing Order 321A, the decision as to whether individual detainees should be retained in Canadian custody, released, or transferred to the custody of a third country, is within the sole discretion of the Commander of Joint Task Force Afghanistan, a position currently occupied by General Laroche.
[57] Following capture by the Canadian Forces, detainees are held in a Canadian Forces temporary detention facility at Kandahar Airfield. Kandahar Airfield is a NATO base, and is the location of the Canadian Forces’ base of operations in Kandahar province.
[58] Kandahar Airfield is not under the control of either the Afghan or Canadian governments, but is a facility shared by Canada and several other ISAF countries participating in security and infrastructure operations in Afghanistan. Canada does, however, have command and control over the Canadian Forces’ detention facilities at the Kandahar Airfield.
[59] Theatre Standing Order 321A further provides that while in Canadian custody, detainees are to be “treated fairly and humanely” in accordance with “applicable international law and CF Doctrine”.
[60] Canada informs the International Committee of the Red Cross when the Canadian Forces detain an individual in Afghanistan, but does not notify the Afghan government that one of its citizens has been detained, unless and until the detainee is to be transferred to Afghan custody.
[61] It is both NATO and Canadian Forces’ policy to transfer or release detainees within 96 hours of their capture. However, the Canadian Forces has the ability to hold detainees for longer periods, and has done so for a variety of reasons.
[62] While in Canadian custody, detainees are interrogated, searched, photographed and fingerprinted. Detainees are not provided with access to legal counsel during their detention by the Canadian Forces, nor are they afforded any opportunity to make representations prior to being handed over to the Afghan authorities.
[63] The Canadian Forces have the sole discretion to determine whether a detainee “shall be retained in custody, transferred to [the Afghan National Security Forces] or released.” These determinations are made on a case-by-case basis by the Canadian Commander of Task Force Afghanistan at regular review meetings.
[64] Before transferring a detainee into Afghan custody, General Laroche must be satisfied that there are no substantial grounds for believing that there exists a real risk that the detainee would be in danger of being subjected to torture or other forms of mistreatment at the hands of Afghan authorities.
[65] It is the position of the respondents that if this standard is not met, detainee transfers will not take place.
[66] On December 19, 2005, the Afghan Minister of Defence and the Chief of the Defence Staff for the Canadian Forces signed an agreement entitled “Arrangement for the Transfer of Detainees between the Canadian Forces and the Ministry of Defence of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan” (the “first Detainee Arrangement”).
[67] The first Detainee Arrangement was intended to establish procedures to be followed in the event that a detainee was to be transferred from the custody of the Canadian Forces to a detention facility operated by Afghan authorities. The Arrangement reflects Canada’s commitment to work with the Afghan government to ensure the humane treatment of detainees, while recognizing that Afghanistan has the primary responsibility to maintain and safeguard detainees in their custody.
[68] Amongst other things, the first Detainee Arrangement provides that the International Committee of the Red Cross has the right to visit detainees at any time, while the detainees are being held in either Canadian or Afghan custody.
[69] In February of 2007, the Canadian Forces signed an exchange of letters with the Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission, which letters emphasize the role of the AIHRC in monitoring detainees. These letters further provide that the AIHRC is to provide immediate notice to the Canadian Forces, should it become aware of the mistreatment of a detainee who has been transferred from Canadian custody.
[70] On May 3, 2007, Canada and Afghanistan concluded a second Arrangement governing the transfer of detainees held by the Canadian Forces (the “second Detainee Arrangement”). This Arrangement supplements the first Detainee Arrangement, which continues to remain in effect.
[71] The second Detainee Arrangement requires that detainees transferred by the Canadian Forces be held in a limited number of detention facilities, to assist in keeping track of the individual detainees. The designated institutions are the National Directorate of Security detention facility in Kandahar, Kandahar central prison (Sarpoza), National Directorate of Security detention facility No. 17 in Kabul, and Pul-e-Charki prison, also in Kabul.
[72] This Arrangement further provides that members of the Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission, the International Committee of the Red Cross, and Canadian Government personnel all have access to persons transferred from Canadian to Afghan custody.
[73] The second Detainee Arrangement also requires that approval be given by Canadian officials before any detainee who had previously been transferred from Canadian to Afghan custody is transferred on to a third country.
[74] Finally, the second Detainee Arrangement provides that any allegations of the abuse or mistreatment of detainees held in Afghan custody are to be investigated by the Government of Afghanistan, and that individuals responsible for mistreating prisoners are to be prosecuted in accordance with Afghan law and internationally applicable legal standards.
[75] On January 22, 2008, the applicants were advised by the respondents that the Canadian Forces had suspended detainee transfers until such time as transfers could be resumed “in accordance with Canada’s international obligations”.
[76] The decision to suspend detainee transfers came about as a result of a “credible allegation of mistreatment” having been received on November 5, 2007 by Canadian personnel monitoring the condition of detainees transferred to Afghan authorities.
[77] The decision to suspend transfers was made by Colonel Christian Juneau, the Deputy Commander of Task Force Afghanistan. The decision was made by Colonel Juneau, in the absence of General Laroche who was on leave at the time.
[78] On January 24, 2008, Brigadier General Joseph Paul André Deschamps testified before the Court with respect to the suspension of detainee transfers, advising that no such transfers had taken place since November 5, 2007.
[79] Brigadier General Deschamps works with the Canadian Expeditionary Forces Command in Ottawa, and is the Chief of Staff responsible for overseeing operations for the Canadian Forces deployed outside of Canada, including those deployed in Afghanistan.
[80] According to Brigadier General Deschamps, the suspension of transfers was temporary in nature, and the Canadian Forces remained committed to the ISAF policy of transferring Afghan detainees to the custody of Afghan authorities. He further testified that the resumption of detainee transfers was a real possibility, but would not occur until such time as Canada was satisfied it could do so “in accordance with its international legal obligations”.
[81] Indeed, while the decision in this matter was under reserve, the Court was advised that as of February 26, 2008, the Canadian Forces had resumed transferring detainees to Afghan custody.
[82] As the Court noted in its decision dismissing the applicants’ motion for an interlocutory injunction, the evidence adduced by the applicants clearly established the existence of very real and serious concerns as to the effectiveness of the steps that had been taken prior to November 5, 2007 to ensure that detainees transferred by the Canadian Forces to the custody of Afghan authorities are not mistreated: see Amnesty International Canada et al. v. Canada (Canadian Forces), 2008 FC 162, at ¶111 (“Amnesty #2).
[83] While the Canadian Forces have implemented additional measures designed to reduce the risk to detainees transferred into the custody of Afghan authorities since November 5, 2007, it is not necessary for the purposes of this motion to pass judgment on the efficacy or sufficiency of these additional protective measures.
[84] The respondents have refused to provide any information with respect to the identity or whereabouts of specific individuals who have been detained by the Canadian Forces, on the grounds of national security.
[85] The respondents do maintain, however, that Canada has no legal authority to establish or run a long-term detention facility in Afghanistan. That is, according to the respondents, the Canadian Forces have not been authorized to detain for the long term, either by the Government of Canada or by ISAF commanders, who have operational control over Canadian Forces. Nor has the Government of Afghanistan authorized such an encroachment on their sovereignty.
[86] With this understanding of the factual underpinning of this case, and before turning to consider the first of the questions stated by the Court, it is appropriate to consider whether the Court should proceed to answer the questions posed by this motion. This issue will be considered first.
III. SHOULD THE COURT ANSWER THE QUESTIONS POSED?
[87] Two issues arise at this juncture, both of which require the Court to consider whether it is appropriate for the Court to answer the questions posed by the motion. These are whether the subject-matter of the application is justiciable, and secondly, whether there is still a live issue between the parties that requires resolution by the Court.
[88] Insofar as the issue of justiciability is concerned, the respondents have previously questioned whether the conduct in issue in this application involves the exercise of prerogative powers and matters of “high policy” that are generally not justiciable.
[89] That is, the respondents argued several months ago that this application for judicial review should be struck on the grounds that it requires the Court to express an opinion on the wisdom of the exercise of defence powers by the Executive Branch of government, which is not the role of the judiciary: see Amnesty #1 at &121-125).
[90] However, the respondents also conceded that to the extent that the applicants’ Notice of Application is framed in Charter terms, the matter is justiciable, based upon the comments of the Supreme Court of Canada in Operation Dismantle, [1985] 1 S.C.R. 441, at ¶63: see Amnesty #1, at &123.
[91] Given that the application for judicial review is framed entirely in terms of the Charter, the Court refused to strike the application on the basis of non-justiciability: Amnesty #1, at &125. No appeal has been taken from that decision, and the respondents have not raised the issue of justiciability in relation to this motion. Accordingly, the Court will proceed on the basis that the matter is justiciable.
[92] Insofar as the second issue is concerned, as a general rule, when dealing with constitutional litigation, Courts should avoid making pronouncements of law, unless compelled to do so by the facts of the case: see, for example, R. v. Hape, 2007 SCC 26, per Justice Binnie, at ¶184.
[93] This cautionary note should be of particular concern in a case such as this, which involves novel and important questions that will undoubtedly have significant implications for the exercise of Canadian military power, and may, as well, have potential consequences for cases well beyond the facts of this one.
[94] With this in mind, at the hearing of this matter, an issue arose as to whether the Court should answer the questions posed, given that, at that point, detainee transfers had been suspended, and it was not clear when, and indeed, if, such transfers would ever resume.
[95] The parties all agreed that the questions posed by this motion were not moot, but were raised in the context of a live controversy – one grounded on a common understanding of the facts - the resolution of which is essential to the disposition of this application.
[96] A review of the amended Notice of Application confirms that the application for judicial review seeks more by way of relief than just simply to enjoin future transfers of detainees. The application also seeks declarations that sections 7, 10 and 12 of the Charter apply to individuals captured and detained by the Canadian Forces, and that the respondents have breached these sections by their conduct.
[97] The amended Notice of Application also seeks both declaratory relief, and an order of mandamus, requiring the respondents to inquire into the status of detainees already transferred to the custody of other countries, and demand their return to Canadian custody.
[98] These latter matters were not addressed or otherwise affected by what the respondents described as the “temporary suspension” of transfers.
[99] Furthermore, as was previously noted, while the matter was under reserve, the Court was advised that the Canadian Forces had resumed detainee transfers. Given that a live controversy clearly continues to exist between the parties, the Court is satisfied that it is appropriate to answer the questions raised by this motion, and will now turn to consider the first of these questions.
IV. DOES THE CANADIAN CHARTER OF RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS APPLY DURING THE ARMED CONFLICT IN AFGHANISTAN TO THE DETENTION OF NON-CANADIANS BY THE CANADIAN FORCES OR THEIR TRANSFER TO AFGHAN AUTHORITIES TO BE DEALT WITH BY THOSE AUTHORITIES?
[100] The search for an answer to this question must begin with a review of the wording of the Charter itself, followed by careful consideration of recent jurisprudence from the Supreme Court of Canada as to the extraterritorial application of the Charter.
a) Section 32(1) of the Charter
[101] Section 32(1) of the Charter provides that:
This Charter applies
a) to the Parliament and government of Canada in respect of all matters within the authority of Parliament including all matters relating to the Yukon Territory and Northwest Territories; and
b) to the legislature and government of each province in respect of all matters within the authority of the legislature of each province.
La présente charte s'applique :
a) au Parlement et au gouvernement du Canada, pour tous les domaines relevant du Parlement, y compris ceux qui concernent le territoire du Yukon et les territoires du Nord-Ouest;
b) à la législature et au gouvernement de chaque province, pour tous les domaines relevant de cette législature.
[102] As the Supreme Court of Canada has noted, section 32(1) determines who is bound by the Charter, and what powers, functions or activities of those bodies and their agents are subject to the Charter: Hape, at ¶32.
[103] In identifying who is bound by the Charter, section 32(1) makes it clear that the Charter is intended to regulate the conduct of “state actors”: see Hape at &81.
[104] The respondents have previously questioned whether the Canadian Forces in Afghanistan are acting as Canadian state actors in this case: see Amnesty #1, at ¶73.
[105] However, for the purposes of this motion, the respondents have accepted that in carrying out their duties in Afghanistan, as part of both OEF and ISAF, the Canadian Forces are indeed functioning as Canadian state actors.
[106] It is noteworthy that section 32(1) does not expressly impose any territorial limits on the application of the Charter. As a consequence, it falls to the courts to interpret the jurisdictional reach and limits of the Charter: see Hape, at ¶33.
[107] The Supreme Court of Canada has recently pronounced on precisely this question in R. v. Hape, albeit in a different factual context. As the Supreme Court’s view of this issue must obviously be of central importance to the Court’s analysis in this case, it is important to have a clear understanding of precisely what the Supreme Court had to say in Hape. This will be addressed next.
b) R. v. Hape
[108] R. v. Hape involved a question as to the admissibility of evidence obtained outside of Canada at a criminal trial in this country.
[109] The accused was a Canadian businessman suspected of money laundering, contrary to the Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, S.C. 1996, c. 19. At his Canadian criminal trial, evidence was admitted that had been obtained by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police in the course of investigations carried out in the Turks and Caicos Islands.
[110] The R.C.M.P. had sought the permission of police authorities in the Turks and Caicos to continue their investigation in that country, and to carry out a search of the accused’s investment company. Permission was granted to the R.C.M.P., on the basis that they were to work under the authority of a member of the Turks and Caicos’ police force.
[111] Without first obtaining a warrant, a procedure that was evidently unavailable in the Turks and Caicos, R.C.M.P. officers searched the investment company. In the course of this search, the officers seized records which were subsequently entered as evidence at the accused’s criminal trial.
[112] The issue in Hape was thus whether the documentary evidence obtained through the search was admissible at the accused’s trial in Canada, in light of his section 8 Charter right to be secure from unreasonable search and seizure.
[113] More precisely, the question for the Supreme Court of Canada was whether the Charter applied to extraterritori