Aubry v. Éditions Vice-Versa inc.

Aubry v. Éditions Vice-Versa inc.
Collection
Supreme Court Judgments
Date
1998-04-09
Report
[1998] 1 SCR 591
Case number
25579
Judges
Lamer, Antonio; L'Heureux-Dubé, Claire; Gonthier, Charles Doherty; Cory, Peter deCarteret; Iacobucci, Frank; Major, John C.; Bastarache, Michel
On appeal from
Quebec
Subjects
Civil procedure
Constitutional law
Torts
Notes
SCC Case Information: 25579
Decision Content
Aubry v. Éditions Vice‑Versa, [1998] 1 S.C.R. 591
Les Éditions Vice‑Versa inc. Appellant
and
Gilbert Duclos Appellant
v.
Pascale Claude Aubry Respondent
and
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Intervener
Indexed as: Aubry v. Éditions Vice‑Versa inc.
File No.: 25579.
1997: December 8; 1998: April 9.
Present: Lamer C.J. and L’Heureux‑Dubé, Gonthier, Cory, Iacobucci, Major and Bastarache JJ.
on appeal from the court of appeal for quebec
Civil liability ‑‑ Invasion of privacy ‑‑ Publication in arts magazine of photograph of teenager taken in public place without her permission ‑‑ Whether publication of photograph infringes teenager’s right to her image and to privacy ‑‑ Whether freedom of artistic expression or public’s right to information justifies publication of photograph ‑‑ Whether publication of photograph caused teenager prejudice ‑‑ Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms, R.S.Q., c. C‑12, ss. 3, 5, 9.1, 49.
Civil rights ‑‑ Right to privacy ‑‑ Right to one’s image ‑‑ Publication in arts magazine of photograph of teenager taken in public place without her permission ‑‑ Balancing of right to privacy and freedom of expression ‑‑ Whether publication of photograph infringes teenager’s right to her image and to privacy ‑‑ Whether freedom of artistic expression or public’s right to information justifies publication of photograph ‑‑ Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms, R.S.Q., c. C‑12, ss. 3, 5, 9.1.
Civil rights ‑‑ Freedom of expression ‑‑ Freedom of artistic expression ‑‑ Publication in arts magazine of photograph of teenager taken in public place without her permission ‑‑ Balancing of right to privacy and freedom of expression ‑‑ Whether freedom of artistic expression or public’s right to information justifies publication of photograph even though such publication infringes teenager’s right to her image and to privacy ‑‑ Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms, R.S.Q., c. C‑12, ss. 3, 5, 9.1.
Costs ‑‑ Additional costs ‑‑ Important case ‑‑ Additional award of costs inappropriate here even if this were recognized to be test case ‑‑ Including additional costs in claim for damages inconsistent with art. 477 C.C.P. ‑‑ Code of Civil Procedure, R.S.Q., c. C‑25, art. 477 ‑‑ Tariff of judicial fees of advocates, R.R.Q. 1981, c. B‑1, r. 13, s. 15.
The respondent brought an action in civil liability against the appellants, a photographer and the publisher of a magazine, for taking and publishing, in a magazine dedicated to the arts, a photograph showing the respondent, then aged 17, sitting on the steps of a building. The photograph, which was taken in a public place, was published without the respondent’s consent. The trial judge recognized that the unauthorized publication of the photograph constituted a fault and ordered the appellants to pay $2,000 jointly and severally. The majority of the Court of Appeal affirmed this decision.
Held (Lamer C.J. and Major J. dissenting): The appeal should be dismissed.
Per L’Heureux‑Dubé, Gonthier, Cory, Iacobucci and Bastarache JJ.: Although the infringement of a right guaranteed by the Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms gives rise, under s. 49 para. 1, to an action for moral and material prejudice, such an action is subject to the civil law principles of recovery. As a result, the traditional elements of liability must be established.
The right to one’s image is an element of the right to privacy under s. 5 of the Quebec Charter. If the purpose of the right to privacy is to protect a sphere of individual autonomy, it must include the ability to control the use made of one’s image. There is an infringement of a person’s right to his or her image and, therefore, fault as soon as the image is published without consent and enables the person to be identified.
However, the right to respect for one’s private life comes into conflict here with the right to freedom of expression protected by s. 3 of the Quebec Charter. Freedom of expression includes freedom of artistic expression, and it is unnecessary to create special categories of expression. The right to respect for one’s private life, like freedom of expression, must be interpreted in accordance with s. 9.1 of the Quebec Charter. The public’s right to information, supported by freedom of expression, places limits on the right to respect for one’s private life in certain circumstances. The balancing of the rights in question depends both on the nature of the information and on the situation of those concerned. In short, this is a question that depends on the context. For the purposes of legal analysis, it is inappropriate to resort to the notion of “socially useful information” adopted by the Court of Appeal.
In this case, the appellants are liable a priori, since the photograph was published when the respondent was identifiable. The artistic expression of the photograph cannot justify the infringement of the right to privacy it entails. An artist’s right to publish his or her work is not absolute and cannot include the right to infringe, without any justification, a fundamental right of the subject whose image appears in the work. It has not been shown that the public’s interest in seeing this photograph is predominant. In these circumstances, the respondent’s right to protection of her image is more important than the appellants’ right to publish the photograph of the respondent without first obtaining her permission. As for the causal connection between the publication of the photograph and the prejudice, there clearly is one.
Finally, although the infringement of a right guaranteed by the Quebec Charter is in itself insufficient to establish that prejudice has been sustained, the evidence, while limited, could serve as a basis for the extrapatrimonial damages awarded. While the trial judge did make some errors in assessing the moral prejudice, these errors do not call into question the existence of such prejudice resulting from the infringement of the respondent’s right to respect for her private life and accordingly do not warrant this Court’s intervention to reduce a compensatory award that, although high, is within reasonable limits.
Per Lamer C.J. (dissenting): In civil liability, even though the respondent alleges that the appellants infringed a right guaranteed to her by the Quebec Charter, she must prove that a fault committed by the appellants caused her prejudice. Although the law of civil liability is informed by the constitutional or quasi‑constitutional rights protected by the charters of rights, we must be reluctant to view fault as amounting to a violation of rights alone. Mere infringement of a right or freedom does not necessarily constitute fault. It is unjustifiable infringements that constitute fault. It is also necessary to give the first paragraph of s. 9.1 of the Quebec Charter -- which provides that rights and freedoms must be exercised in relation to each other, with proper regard for public order, democratic values and general well‑being -- an interpretative significance and adapt the law of civil liability, as needed, to make it consistent with the rights guaranteed by the Quebec Charter. The rights concerned must therefore be balanced. In short, the concept of fault is central to the resolution of this case. Such an approach recognizes the flexible and contextual nature of this concept, and its capacity to reconcile the rights relied upon. A reasonable person respects the rights and freedoms of everyone and carries out his or her obligations while bearing his or her own rights in mind. This approach is also consistent with the wording of s. 9.1 of the Quebec Charter.
Here, the dissemination of the respondent’s image constituted a violation of her privacy and of her right to her image. In the abstract, to appropriate another person’s image without his or her consent to include it in a publication constitutes a fault. However, in light of the first paragraph of s. 9.1 of the Quebec Charter, the respondent’s right to privacy must be interpreted and harmonized in a manner consistent with the appellants’ freedom of expression and the public’s right to information, which is guaranteed by s. 44 of the Quebec Charter. In matters involving the right to one’s image, this harmonizing role is played by the concept of the public interest. The content of this concept depends on the nature of the information conveyed by the image and on the situation of the parties involved. On the other hand, it must be balanced against the reasonable expectation of privacy of the person whose image is reproduced and, generally, against the severity of the infringement of the parties’ rights. The concept of public interest limited to the right to receive “socially useful information” is too narrow. In this case, the public interest does not justify the appellants’ fault. The photographer could easily have obtained the respondent’s consent, but did not do so. As for causality, it is not at issue. Regarding prejudice, the Quebec law of civil liability requires proof of prejudice resulting from the fault. The respondent’s simple statement that her classmates laughed at her does not in itself constitute sufficient evidence of prejudice, since it does not provide any information about how she felt. Nor is there any evidence that the respondent has become a “well-known figure” or that the instant proceedings and the media coverage they received have increased her notoriety.
Per Major J. (dissenting): The appeal should be allowed for the reasons of the dissenting judge in the Court of Appeal that there was no evidence of damage.
Cases Cited
By L’Heureux‑Dubé and Bastarache JJ.
Referred to: Hodgkinson v. Simms, [1994] 3 S.C.R. 377; Laurentide Motels Ltd. v. Beauport (City), [1989] 1 S.C.R. 705; Béliveau St‑Jacques v. Fédération des employées et employés de services publics inc., [1996] 2 S.C.R. 345; Augustus v. Gosset, [1996] 3 S.C.R. 268; Godbout v. Longueuil (City), [1997] 3 S.C.R. 844; R. v. Dyment, [1988] 2 S.C.R. 417; Field v. United Amusement Corp., [1971] C.S. 283; R. v. Keegstra, [1990] 3 S.C.R. 697; Irwin Toy Ltd. v. Quebec (Attorney General), [1989] 1 S.C.R. 927; Ford v. Quebec (Attorney General), [1988] 2 S.C.R. 712; R. v. Butler, [1992] 1 S.C.R. 452; Estate of Presley v. Russen, 513 F.Supp. 1339 (1981); Current Audio, Inc. v. RCA Corp., 337 N.Y.S.2d 949 (1972); Fraser v. Public Service Staff Relations Board, [1985] 2 S.C.R. 455; Dagenais v. Canadian Broadcasting Corp., [1994] 3 S.C.R. 835; Hill v. Church of Scientology of Toronto, [1995] 2 S.C.R. 1130; Moises v. Canadian Newspaper Co., [1997] 1 W.W.R. 337; CKOY Ltd. v. The Queen, [1979] 1 S.C.R. 2; R. v. Big M Drug Mart Ltd., [1985] 1 S.C.R. 295; Kowarsky v. Procureur général du Québec, [1988] R.D.J. 339; Droit de la famille ‑‑ 1777, [1994] R.J.Q. 1493; Banque canadienne impériale de commerce v. Aztec Iron Corp., [1978] C.S. 266; Berthiaume v. Réno‑Dépôt inc., [1996] R.J.Q. 1323.
By Lamer C.J. (dissenting)
Béliveau St‑Jacques v. Fédération des employées et employés de services publics inc., [1996] 2 S.C.R. 345; R. v. Duarte, [1990] 1 S.C.R. 30; R. v. Wong, [1990] 3 S.C.R. 36; R. v. Dyment, [1988] 2 S.C.R. 417; Godbout v. Longueuil (City), [1997] 3 S.C.R. 844; Ford v. Quebec (Attorney General), [1988] 2 S.C.R. 712; R. v. Edwards Books and Art Ltd., [1986] 2 S.C.R. 713; Hill v. Church of Scientology of Toronto, [1995] 2 S.C.R. 1130; R. v. Salituro, [1991] 3 S.C.R. 654; Deschamps v. Renault Canada (1977), 18 C. de D. 937; Société Radio‑Canada v. Radio Sept‑Îles inc., [1994] R.J.Q. 1811; Syndicat des communications graphiques local 41‑M v. Journal de Montréal, [1994] R.D.J. 456; Towner v. Constructions H. Rodrigue inc., [1991] R.J.Q. 381; Gazette (The) (Division Southam inc.) v. Valiquette, [1997] R.J.Q. 30; Rebeiro v. Shawinigan Chemicals (1969) Ltd., [1973] C.S. 389.
Statutes and Regulations Cited
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, ss. 1 , 8 .
Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms, R.S.Q., c. C‑12, ss. 3, 4, 5, 9.1 [en. 1982, c. 61, s. 2], 44, 49.
Civil Code of Lower Canada, arts. 1053, 1073.
Civil Code of Québec, S.Q. 1991, c. 64, art. 36.
Code of Civil Procedure, R.S.Q., c. C‑25, art. 477, para. 1.
Tariff of judicial fees of advocates, R.R.Q. 1981, c. B‑1, r. 13, s. 15 [published at R.R.Q. 1981, p. 157 (Supp.)].
Authors Cited
Caron, Madeleine. “Le Code civil québécois, instrument de protection des droits et libertés de la personne” (1978), 56 Can. Bar Rev. 197.
Chevrette, François. “La disposition limitative de la Charte des droits et libertés de la personne: le dit et le non‑dit” (1987), 21 R.J.T. 461.
Deleury, Édith, et Dominique Goubau. Le droit des personnes physiques, 2e éd. Cowansville, Qué.: Yvon Blais, 1997.
Glenn, H. Patrick. “Le droit au respect de la vie privée” (1979), 39 R. du B. 879.
Kayser, Pierre. La protection de la vie privée, 2e éd. Paris: Économica, 1990.
Nerson, R. Les droits extrapatrimoniaux. Paris: L.G.D.J., 1939.
Perret, Louis. “De l’impact de la Charte des droits et libertés de la personne sur le droit civil des contrats et de la responsabilité au Québec” (1981), 12 R.G.D. 121.
Potvin, Louise. La personne et la protection de son image: étude comparée des droits québécois, français et de la common law anglaise. Cowansville, Qué.: Yvon Blais, 1991.
Québec. Assemblée nationale. Journal des débats: Commissions parlementaires, 3e sess., 32e lég. Commission permanente de la justice, Étude des projets de loi nos 101, 219, 260, 254, 262, 269, 278, 221 et 86 ‑‑ Loi modifiant la Charte des droits et libertés de la personne, 16 décembre 1982, no 230, p. B‑11609.
Ravanas, J. La protection des personnes contre la réalisation et la publication de leur image. Paris: L.G.D.J., 1978.
Vallières, Nicole. La presse et la diffamation. Montréal: Wilson & Lafleur, 1985.
APPEAL from a judgment of the Quebec Court of Appeal, [1996] R.J.Q. 2137, 141 D.L.R. (4th) 683 (sub nom. Aubry v. Duclos), 71 C.P.R. (3d) 59, [1996] Q.J. No. 2116 (QL), affirming a decision of the Court of Québec, [1991] R.R.A. 421. Appeal dismissed, Lamer C.J. and Major J. dissenting.
Guylaine Bachand, for the appellant Les Éditions Vice‑Versa inc.
Vivianne De Kinder, for the appellant Duclos.
Nathalie Charbonneau and Yves Archambault, for the respondent.
Marc‑André Blanchard and Marie‑Philippe Bouchard, for the intervener.
English version of the reasons delivered by
1 The Chief Justice (dissenting) -- I have had the opportunity to read the joint reasons of Justices L’Heureux‑Dubé and Bastarache and, while I generally agree with them, I cannot fully subscribe to their analytical approach or their conclusion. I wish to make certain comments concerning the nature of the right to one’s image and how I believe rights should be incorporated into an analysis of civil liability. Furthermore, I would allow this appeal because there is no evidence of damage.
I. Civil Liability and Rights
2 To a great extent, the oral arguments of the parties in this Court concerned the scope of the right to one’s image and the limits imposed on it by the freedom of expression of a photographer and that of a publishing company. To this effect, the intervener Canadian Broadcasting Corporation relied on this Court’s freedom of expression jurisprudence to challenge the scope of a person’s right to his or her image. The important role played by freedom of expression in our society was raised. While these submissions are most relevant to the resolution of the case, I think it is important to clarify first how rights influence our analysis of civil liability. This approach makes clear to us how to reconcile the conflicting values at issue.
3 I would stress that the concept of fault is central to the resolution of this case. Before the Quebec legislature enacted a charter of human rights and freedoms, it was the law of civil liability, with all its flexibility, that protected privacy and the individual’s interest in his or her image in Quebec private law. I read with interest the reasons of the judges of the Court of Appeal on this topic. In enacting its Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms, R.S.Q., c. C-12, the legislature thus consolidated the advances of civil liability in the protection of human rights: M. Caron, “Le Code civil québécois, instrument de protection des droits et libertés de la personne” (1978), 56 Can. Bar Rev. 197, at pp. 199‑200; H. P. Glenn, “Le droit au respect de la vie privée” (1979), 39 R. du B. 879, at pp. 880‑81.
4 This Court recognized the historical and conceptual continuity between the law of civil liability and the Quebec Charter in Béliveau St‑Jacques v. Fédération des employées et employés de services publics inc., [1996] 2 S.C.R. 345. The Court held at para. 120, per Gonthier J., that the constituent elements of the remedy available under s. 49 of the Quebec Charter cannot be distinguished from those of the general civil liability remedy:
The fact that an interpreter of the Charter first has to clarify the scope of a protected right in light of a specific provision does not make this exercise any different from the one that involves deducing a specific application from the principle recognized in art. 1053 C.C.L.C.
5 My intention here is to place the analytical approach that characterizes the dispute in this case as being primarily a conflict between the rights of the respondent and those of the appellants in its proper theoretical context. Accordingly, even though she relies on a certain right to her image, the plaintiff respondent must prove that a fault committed by the appellants caused her prejudice.
6 I also wish to point out that the parties referred us to a number of public law cases. I do not doubt that the law of civil liability is informed by the constitutional or “quasi‑constitutional” rights protected by the Charters. I am certain that a reasonable person respects everyone’s right to privacy, right to his or her image and freedom of expression in accordance with the Charters. However, I believe that it is important to emphasize the comprehensive and contextual nature of civil fault. We should be reluctant to view fault as amounting to a violation of rights alone. In my view, such an approach is riddled with obstacles, of which the following are those that appear most obvious to me.
7 More often than not, the decisions of this Court concerning fundamental rights have been rendered in the criminal law context. It must first be asked whether those decisions are directly applicable to a dispute between private parties, as in the case at bar. Although I do not intend to give a general answer to this question, my comments can be illustrated with an example.
8 Section 8 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms protects against unreasonable search and seizure, thereby guaranteeing a certain right to privacy. However, the decisions of this Court relating to s. 8 recognize that there is a fundamental difference between a person’s reasonable expectation of privacy in his or her dealings with the state and the same person’s reasonable expectation of privacy in his or her dealings with ordinary citizens. I refer here to the reasons of the majority of this Court in R. v. Duarte, [1990] 1 S.C.R. 30, at pp. 43‑45, and R. v. Wong, [1990] 3 S.C.R. 36, at pp. 48‑55. For example, La Forest J. wrote in Wong, at p. 48: “it must follow that there is an important difference between the risk that our activities may be observed by other persons, and the risk that agents of the state, in the absence of prior authorization, will permanently record those activities on videotape”. In the view of La Forest J. it is possible to consent to one of these risks without consenting to the other (at p. 51): “We must be prepared to live with the first risk, but, in a free and open society, need not tolerate the spectre of the second.”
9 It would therefore be wrong to define the scope of the right to privacy between citizens solely on the basis of the decisions relating to s. 8 . Although I agree with the functional definitions of privacy adopted by this Court, particularly in R. v. Dyment, [1988] 2 S.C.R. 417, and Godbout v. Longueuil (City), [1997] 3 S.C.R. 844, it seems to me that the right to privacy can have a different scope in private law.
10 The analysis under the Canadian Charter can also be distinguished from civil liability analysis in another way. In Charter matters, this Court has developed a two‑stage approach: the plaintiff must first show that a right or freedom has been infringed before the defendant attempts to demonstrate that the limit on the protected rights and freedoms is reasonable. For example, freedom of expression enjoys very broad protection in Canada. Any peaceful activity that conveys or attempts to convey meaning is protected by freedom of expression. According to this definition, even defamatory remarks are protected by freedom of expression. Therefore, the person who maintains the validity of a limit on such expression has the burden of proving that the limit is reasonable. Where the Canadian Charter is concerned, the burden of justification is always on the state.
11 In contrast, the rules of civil liability are different. First, mere infringement of a right or freedom does not in my view necessarily constitute fault. For example, firefighters who interrupt a political meeting to evacuate a burning building do not commit a fault. In my view, the following statement by Gonthier J. in Béliveau St‑Jacques, supra, must be interpreted in light of the foregoing: “It is . . . clear that the violation of a right protected by the Charter is equivalent to a civil fault” (para. 120). Only unjustifiable infringements of freedom of expression, as this freedom is defined in public law, constitute fault.
12 Second, I do not think that a civil liability analysis allows the burden of proof to be shifted between the parties in the same manner as is permitted in Charter law. Section 9.1 of the Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms is relevant here. It reads as follows:
9.1. In exercising his fundamental freedoms and rights, a person shall maintain a proper regard for democratic values, public order and the general well‑being of the citizens of Québec.
In this respect, the scope of the freedoms and rights, and limits to their exercise, may be fixed by law.
13 This Court has held, in cases in which the validity of a statutory provision was challenged, that s. 9.1 is to be interpreted in the same way as s. 1 of the Canadian Charter . We have also suggested, however, that this provision can have a somewhat different meaning. Thus, in Ford v. Quebec (Attorney General), [1988] 2 S.C.R. 712, at pp. 769‑70, the Court put forward a different interpretation in these terms:
It was suggested in argument that because of its quite different wording s. 9.1 was not a justificatory provision similar to s. 1 [of the Canadian Charter ] but merely a provision indicating that the fundamental freedoms and rights guaranteed by the Quebec Charter are not absolute but relative and must be construed and exercised in a manner consistent with the values, interests and considerations indicated in s. 9.1 — “democratic values, public order and the general well‑being of the citizens of Québec.” In the case at bar the Superior Court and the Court of Appeal held that s. 9.1 was a justificatory provision corresponding to s. 1 of the Canadian Charter and that it was subject, in its application, to a similar test of rational connection and proportionality. This Court agrees with that conclusion. The first paragraph of s. 9.1 speaks of the manner in which a person must exercise his fundamental freedoms and rights. That is not a limit on the authority of government but rather does suggest the manner in which the scope of the fundamental freedoms and rights is to be interpreted. [Underlining in original; italics added.]
The Court continued its analysis in Ford by noting that the second paragraph of s. 9.1 does refer to “legislative authority to impose limits on the fundamental freedoms and rights” (p. 770). It held that this second paragraph must be interpreted in the same way as s. 1 of the Canadian Charter .
14 Similarly, in the recent case of Godbout v. Longueuil (City), supra, La Forest J. stated, at para. 103:
As is evident from its very terms, s. 9.1 allows for the possibility that the "fundamental freedoms and rights" enshrined in the Quebec Charter may be subject to limits fixed by law. While it might be argued ‑‑ I do not say how successfully ‑‑ that the residence requirement at issue would not constitute a "law" for the purposes of s. 9.1, and while there appears to be some uncertainty in the academic literature as to whether the first paragraph of s. 9.1 can ever apply to limit rights even where no applicable "law" does so (see, e.g., F. Chevrette, "La disposition limitative de la Charte des droits et libertés de la personne: le dit et le non‑dit", in De la Charte québécoise des droits et libertés: origine, nature et défis (1989), 71), I do not consider it necessary to pronounce specifically upon either of those issues. I take this view for the following reasons. [Emphasis added.]
15 Furthermore, the statement of the test for s. 1 of the Canadian Charter itself refers to “the legislative objective which the limitation is designed to promote”: R. v. Edwards Books and Art Ltd., [1986] 2 S.C.R. 713, at p. 768. It is difficult to apply this language to the law of civil liability. Article 1053 of the Civil Code of Lower Canada lays down a standard of conduct in general wording that does not lend itself well to a sufficiently specific analysis of its objective. In light of the foregoing, I believe that we must give the first paragraph of s. 9.1 an interpretative significance and adapt the law of civil liability, as needed, to make it consistent with the rights guaranteed by the Quebec Charter.
16 In this respect, a parallel can be drawn between the present case and the case before the Court in Hill v. Church of Scientology of Toronto, [1995] 2 S.C.R. 1130. This Court recognized in Hill that in libel cases, “the twin values of reputation and freedom of expression will clash” (para. 100). This type of balancing must also be done here. While this Court concluded in that case that the Canadian Charter did not apply to the actions of the plaintiff Casey Hill, it repeated that the common law is subject to the Canadian Charter . Cory J. quoted the comments of Iacobucci J. to that effect in R. v. Salituro, [1991] 3 S.C.R. 654, at p. 675:
Where the principles underlying a common law rule are out of step with the values enshrined in the Charter, the courts should scrutinize the rule closely. If it is possible to change the common law rule so as to make it consistent with Charter values, without upsetting the proper balance between judicial and legislative action that I have referred to above, then the rule ought to be changed.
In my view, this is a judicial process similar to that prescribed by s. 9.1.
17 In short, the real issue is whether the appellants committed a fault. This approach recognizes the flexible and contextual nature of the concept of fault, and its capacity to reconcile the rights relied upon in this case (see L. Perret, “De l’impact de la Charte des droits et libertés de la personne sur le droit civil des contrats et de la responsabilité au Québec” (1981), 12 R.G.D. 121, at p. 124). A reasonable person respects the rights and freedoms of everyone and carries out his or her obligations while bearing his or her own rights in mind.
18 This approach is also consistent with the wording of s. 9.1 of the Quebec Charter. The parliamentary proceedings that resulted in the adoption of s. 9.1 show that the legislature’s intention was for the first paragraph of s. 9.1 to place limits on private relations rather than on the law itself: see F. Chevrette, “La disposition limitative de la Charte des droits et libertés de la personne: le dit et le non‑dit” (1987), 21 R.J.T. 461, at pp. 463‑68. The statement made by the Quebec Minister of Justice when the provision was adopted in 1982 can also be noted, with appropriate caution:
[translation] The purpose of s. 9.1 is to temper the absolute nature of the freedoms and rights set out in ss. 1 to 9 both from the perspective of the limits imposed on the holders of those rights and freedoms in respect of other citizens, which is the case for the first paragraph, and from that of the limits the legislature may place on the community as a whole, a principle formed in the second paragraph.
(Journal des débats: Commissions parlementaires, 3rd sess., 32nd Leg., December 16, 1982, at p. B‑11609.)
19 This case cannot be resolved merely by relying upon the respondent’s right to her image or the appellants’ freedom of expression; the rights concerned must also be balanced. Since freedom of expression is fairly well known, I shall now discuss the right to one’s image.
II. Right to One’s Image
20 The Quebec courts have applied the principles of civil liability to allow compensation for the prejudice resulting from the use of a person’s image without his or her consent. According to the authors, these judicial interventions have created a right to one’s image at issue in the present case. The reasons of the Court of Appeal include a detailed account of the evolution of Quebec and French jurisprudence and doctrine, and that account is entirely satisfactory. However, I wish to add the following comments.
21 I would hesitate to conclude that the right to one’s image has no existence independent of the right to privacy. It is common knowledge that this Court has defined the right to privacy very broadly (albeit in the public law context). In Dyment, supra, La Forest J. noted that according to certain authors privacy “is at the heart of liberty in a modern state” (p. 427), and that it is based “on the notion of the dignity and integrity of the individual” (p. 429). La Forest J. reiterated this functional approach in Godbout v. Longueuil (City), supra, in which he stated at para. 97 that the right to privacy protects, inter alia, the “narrow sphere of personal autonomy within which inherently private choices are made”, a view shared by all the members of this Court. I believe that the right to privacy can be analysed in similar terms in private law. Furthermore, this right certainly includes a person’s right to his or her image. Nevertheless, I do not rule out the possibility that a person’s commercial interest in his or her image does not derive uniquely from his or her right to privacy. As a result, it may be advisable to preserve the integrity of the concept of privacy.
22 I also agree with my colleagues that the right to one’s image is primarily a personality right, an interest of an extrapatrimonial nature. I do not consider it necessary to go further and determine whether there is also a right to one’s image of a patrimonial nature, as Rothman J. suggested in Deschamps v. Renault Canada (1977), 18 C. de D. 937 (Que. Sup. Ct.). I would note simply that it is not contrary to public order for individuals, whether famous or not, to profit from consenting to the use of their image.
23 In the case at bar, I am of the view that the dissemination of the respondent’s image constituted a violation of her privacy and of her right to her image. In the abstract, to appropriate another person’s image without his or her consent to include it in a publication constitutes a fault. I am of the view that a reasonable person would have been more diligent and would at least have tried to obtain the respondent’s consent to the publication of her photograph. The appellants did not do everything necessary to avoid infringing the respondent’s rights. In this regard, a parallel can be drawn with the obligation of diligence the news media must meet in gathering information in order to avoid liability for defamation should their comments prove to be inaccurate: Société Radio-Canada v. Radio Sept‑Îles inc., [1994] R.J.Q. 1811 (C.A.), at pp. 1818‑21.
24 I do not doubt that freedom of expression provides the appellants with powerful arguments to the effect that they acted reasonably. However, as s. 9.1 of the Quebec Charter provides, rights and freedoms must be exercised in relation to each other, with proper regard for public order, democratic values and general well‑being (see also Syndicat des communications graphiques local 41-M v. Journal de Montréal, [1994] R.D.J. 456 (C.A.), at p. 458; Towner v. Constructions H. Rodrigue inc., [1991] R.J.Q. 381 (Sup. Ct.), at pp. 382‑83). Thus, the rights of the appellants and the respondent must be harmonized in the facts of the case. The concept of the public interest is intended to play this role in matters involving the right to one’s image as in the case of the right to one’s honour and reputation. This rule should now be examined.
III. Public Interest
25 The respondent’s right to privacy must be interpreted in a manner consistent with the appellants’ freedom of expression and the public’s right to information, which is guaranteed by s. 44 of the Quebec Charter. As the Court of Appeal recently stated in The Gazette (Division Southam inc.) v. Valiquette, [1997] R.J.Q. 30 (C.A.), at p. 36:
[translation] The right to privacy, on the other hand, is not absolute. It is subject to a series of limits, and its application requires a balancing with other fundamental rights, including the public’s right to information. A violation of the right to privacy thus cannot be characterized as illicit or wrongful if there is a reasonable justification or a legitimate purpose, or if it can be concluded that the person consented to the invasion of his or her privacy.
26 It is inevitable that the concept of public interest is imprecise. In her work on defamation, Nicole Vallières writes of the public interest in this context: [translation] “[t]his abstract concept is difficult to delimit, and as far as we know, no definition of the public interest has been applied to the press by the Quebec courts”: La presse et la diffamation (1985), at p. 90. In my view, the content of the concept of public interest depends on the nature of the information conveyed by the image and on the situation of the parties involved. On the other hand, it must be balanced against the reasonable expectation of privacy of the person whose image is reproduced and, generally, against the severity of the infringement of the parties’ rights.
27 With respect, I believe that LeBel J.A. of the Court of Appeal erred in limiting the notion of public interest to the right to receive [translation] “socially useful” information ([1996] R.J.Q. 2137, at p. 2149). This concept appears to me to be too narrow. Be that as it may, it is my view that in the case at bar the public interest does not justify the appellants’ fault. The appellant Duclos could easily have obtained the respondent’s consent, but did not do so. It is possible for the public interest to justify the dissemination of the image of a person who is in a crowd or is at the scene of an important event in a purely incidental manner. However, I will express no opinion on this subject, and I do not think it appropriate to specify, in the context of the present case, the circumstances in which the public interest prevails over a person’s right to his or her image. It is sufficient to state that the appellants committed a fault. Since causality is not at issue here, it is now necessary to consider damage and the proof thereof.
IV. Damage
28 The Quebec law of civil liability requires proof of prejudice resulting from the fault. This is an essential element of civil liability. On this question of damage, I agree with Baudouin J.A. that the plaintiff respondent has not proven that she suffered prejudice.
29 The complete evidence of damage reads as follows:
[translation]
Q. Did that photo cause you any difficulties?
A. Some difficulties; people laughed at me.
Q. People, who are these people?
A My friends, the people at school.
Q. The people at school?
A. Uh‑huh.
Q. I have no further questions, Your Honour.
30 The trial judge concluded from the evidence that the respondent had been a victim of [translation] “teasing by friends her own age” and that this entitled her to compensation [translation] “of at least $2,000 for the humiliation suffered as a result of the invasion of her privacy and injury to her reputation” ([1991] R.R.A. 421, at p. 423). For his part, LeBel J.A. of the Court of Appeal noted that the respondent’s evidence of prejudice was limited, but hastened to add that the trial judge believed this evidence, which accordingly made it sufficient evidence of damage. Thus, [translation] “[i]n order to find that there was no moral injury, it would be necessary to go back over this assessment of credibility, an area essentially reserved to the sovereign assessment of the trier of fact, absent any manifest, serious and decisive error” (p. 2150).
31 I believe that if the respondent had stated, “I felt humiliated when I saw the photograph published in Vice‑Versa magazine”, there would have been sufficient evidence of damage in this case, provided that Judge Bourret believed her. As Perrault J. of the Superior Court suggested in Rebeiro v. Shawinigan Chemicals (1969) Ltd., [1973] C.S. 389, at p. 391, [translation] “[s]ome people may find it unpleasant to see their photographs appear on advertising posters; it is up to each individual to judge and decide this by giving or refusing the necessary consent.”
32 However, in my view the statement “people laughed at me” does not in itself constitute sufficient evidence of damage, since it does not provide any information about how the respondent Aubry felt. The fact that the trial judge accepted this evidence, without giving any reasons or explanation, suggests to me that he erred in presuming damage solely because the respondent’s classmates laughed at her. On re‑reading the Court of Québec’s judgment, I cannot convince myself that Judge Bourret considered this essential element of civil liability.
33 The respondent nonetheless suggests that her prejudice consists of the fact that she has become well-known, thereby losing her anonymity. With respect, there is no evidence on the record tending to show that the respondent is now a “well-known figure”. No witnesses were called to testify that the respondent’s face or person is now known to them as a result of the events that gave rise to the litigation. The respondent also maintains that the civil proceedings in the present case and the media coverage they received have increased her notoriety, thereby entitling her to compensation. Once again, no evidence was adduced as to the respondent’s notoriety.
34 Justices L’Heureux‑Dubé and Bastarache state that the evidence on the record “could serve as a basis for the damages awarded. This evidence did exist and illustrated in the trial judge’s view the discomfort and upset felt by the respondent as a result of the publication of her photograph” (para. 71). However, the trial judge did not in fact find that the plaintiff had felt discomfort. Judge Bourret did mention [translation] “the humiliation suffered as a result of the invasion of her privacy and injury to her reputation” (p. 423 (emphasis added)), but this merely confirms that the trial judge committed a significant error in identifying the interest harmed by the events in question.
35 According to one French author, damage in the case of an infringement of the right to one’s image [translation] “may consist simply in the annoyance felt by a per