Canada (Justice) v. Fischbacher

Canada (Justice) v. Fischbacher
Collection
Supreme Court Judgments
Date
2009-10-16
Neutral citation
2009 SCC 46
Report
[2009] 3 SCR 170
Case number
32842
Judges
McLachlin, Beverley; Binnie, William Ian Corneil; LeBel, Louis; Deschamps, Marie; Fish, Morris J.; Abella, Rosalie Silberman; Charron, Louise; Rothstein, Marshall; Cromwell, Thomas Albert
On appeal from
Ontario
Subjects
Criminal law
Notes
SCC Case Information: 32842
Decision Content
SUPREME COURT OF CANADA
Citation: Canada (Justice) v. Fischbacher, 2009 SCC 46, [2009] 3 S.C.R. 170
Date: 20091016
Docket: 32842
Between:
Minister of Justice of Canada
Appellant
and
Henry C. Fischbacher
Respondent
Coram: McLachlin C.J. and Binnie, LeBel, Deschamps, Fish, Abella, Charron, Rothstein and Cromwell JJ.
Reasons for Judgment:
(paras. 1 to 59)
Concurring Reasons:
(paras. 60 to 88)
Charron J. (McLachlin C.J. and Binnie, LeBel, Deschamps, Abella, Rothstein and Cromwell JJ. concurring)
Fish J.
______________________________
Canada (Justice) v. Fischbacher, 2009 SCC 46, [2009] 3 S.C.R. 170
Minister of Justice of Canada Appellant
v.
Henry C. Fischbacher Respondent
Indexed as: Canada (Justice) v. Fischbacher
Neutral citation: 2009 SCC 46.
File No.: 32842.
2009: June 16; 2009: October 16.
Present: McLachlin C.J. and Binnie, LeBel, Deschamps, Fish, Abella, Charron, Rothstein and Cromwell JJ.
on appeal from the court of appeal for ontario
Extradition — Surrender — Powers of Minister — Misalignment test — U.S. seeking F’s extradition on charge of first degree murder — Extradition judge committing F for offence of second degree murder finding insufficient evidence on one element of Canadian offence of first degree murder — Minister of Justice surrendering F for American offence of first degree murder — Whether Minister must ensure alignment between foreign offence upon which person sought ordered to be surrendered and evidence adduced before extradition judge at committal hearing.
F was indicted on a charge of first degree murder in Arizona in relation to the death of his wife. The United States requested his extradition. The Minister of Justice authorized the request, identifying the corresponding Canadian offence in the authority to proceed as “murder, contrary to s. 231 of the Criminal Code ” without particularizing the crime as first or second degree murder. The Attorney General proceeded to a committal hearing and the extradition judge committed F for the offence of second degree murder, finding no evidence of planning and deliberation to justify a committal for first degree murder under Canadian law. No appeal was taken from the committal order. The Minister subsequently ordered F’s surrender to face trial for first degree murder in the United States. F sought judicial review of the Minister’s decision. The Court of Appeal held that the principle of double criminality was met but, applying the “misalignment test”, it held that it was unreasonable to order F’s surrender for first degree murder in the absence of evidence of the essential element of premeditation at the committal proceeding. The court allowed the application for judicial review and remitted the matter to the Minister for reconsideration.
Held: The appeal should be allowed and the Minister’s surrender order restored.
Per McLachlin C.J. and Binnie, LeBel, Deschamps, Abella, Charron, Rothstein and Cromwell JJ.: The principle of double criminality codified in s. 3 of the Extradition Act has two components, one foreign and one domestic. The foreign component requires that the offence upon which extradition is requested be criminal in the requesting state and carry the specified penalty. The domestic aspect requires that the conduct underlying the foreign offence amount to a criminal offence under Canadian law with the specified penalty. Consistent with prevailing international practice and the principle of comity, Canada has adopted a conduct‑based approach to determining double criminality and, as a result, it is not necessary that the Canadian offence described in the authority to proceed or the committal order “match” the foreign offence for which the person is sought or surrendered in name or in terms of its constituent elements; it is the essence of the offence that is important under the conduct‑based approach. [4] [29]
The role of the Minister and the breadth of his discretion in extradition matters can only be understood with reference to the legislative scheme established by the Act. The Minister, by authorizing extradition proceedings, establishes that the foreign component of double criminality is satisfied. The function of an extradition hearing is to determine whether the domestic component of double criminality is met. The province of the extradition judge is limited to determining whether the evidence submitted at the committal hearing reveals conduct that would justify committal for trial in Canada for the crime listed in the authority to proceed, if the crime had occurred in Canada. The judge’s role does not include any review of the foreign law. If the extradition judge concludes that the impugned conduct would amount to a criminal offence in Canadian law, the person sought must be committed for extradition. [35]
Following committal, the Minister reviews the case in its entirety to determine whether to order the individual’s surrender, and if so, on what basis. This requires the Minister to determine whether it is politically appropriate and not fundamentally unjust to extradite the person sought. The Minister’s general power to order or refuse surrender pursuant to s. 40(1) of the Extradition Act is subject to the provisions of the Act, the extradition treaty, and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms . Under s. 44(1)(a) of the Act, the Minister shall refuse to make a surrender order if he is satisfied that the surrender would be unjust or oppressive having regard to all the relevant circumstances. This requires the Minister to balance factors that militate in favour of surrender against those that counsel against it. If the Minister decides to surrender the person sought, his order under s. 58 (b) must specify the offence or conduct for which the person is surrendered, but nothing in that section requires that the Minister match or “align” the surrender offence with that listed in the authority to proceed or the committal order, or with the evidence adduced at the hearing. [36‑41]
The “misalignment” test is incompatible with three key components of extradition law. Requiring the Minister to assess the parity between the elements of the Canadian offence and the elements of the foreign offence amounts to adding an offence‑based test for double criminality at the final stage of the extradition process, and is inconsistent with the Act and the extradition treaty. Further, for the Canadian authorities, judicial or executive, to evaluate a foreign state’s decision to prosecute the person sought for a given offence, or to assess the sufficiency of the evidence adduced at the committal hearing against the elements of the foreign offence, would amount to second‑guessing the foreign state’s assessment of its own law and would offend the underlying principle of comity. Lastly, the “misalignment” test is inconsistent with the role of the extradition judge defined by s. 29 of the Act, which specifies that the judge is to consider only the domestic side of double criminality, looking for evidence in respect of each element of the Canadian offence listed in the authority to proceed. [49‑53]
Since the Minister was under no obligation to apply a misalignment test, his failure to do so cannot provide a basis for interfering with the surrender decision. When the reasonableness of the Minister’s surrender decision is assessed having regard to all relevant circumstances and in accordance with the applicable provisions of the Act, there is no basis for interfering with his decision. [6] [58]
Per Fish J.: The Minister’s broad discretion to order surrender is subject to judicial review pursuant to s. 57(7) of the Extradition Act . An absence of evidence on an undisputed element of the foreign offence for which surrender is ordered, without a reasonable explanation, may warrant judicial intervention. This view of the law is firmly rooted in an unbroken line of recent, unanimous appellate court decisions. An absence of evidence on an essential element of the foreign offence for which surrender is ordered is an absence of evidence that the offence was committed. Neither comity nor conduct‑based double criminality authorizes a surrender for trial on an offence for which there is no evidence. The Extradition Act is intended to prevent this from occurring. [60‑61] [63‑64] [73]
To permit the Minister to turn a blind eye to a total absence of evidence on an element of the foreign offence would create a total disconnect between the judicial and executive functions under the Act. These are different, but they are meant to complement and not to contradict one another. The judge and not the Minister determines whether the evidence adduced at the extradition hearing would warrant committal to trial on the Canadian offence set out by the Minister in the authority to proceed if that conduct had occurred in Canada. The judicial determination of whether or not to commit a person sought for extradition is made without reference to the foreign offence, but where a committal order rests on findings of fact that necessarily relate to the conduct of both the Canadian offence and the offence for which extradition is sought, those findings cannot be disregarded by the Minister. [70] [72] [75]
It is not reasonable to surrender a person sought for extradition without an explanation if there is no dispute as to the essential elements of the foreign offence and there is complete lack of evidence on one or more of the elements. The Minister normally should provide the explanation, however it may also appear from the materials before the court. Here, the Minister’s explanation for the surrender order was inadequate, but the record provided a sufficient explanation. The Minister had before him an indictment by a grand jury, a warrant of arrest signed by a Superior Court judge from Arizona, and a Certification of the Record of the Case by a Deputy County Attorney of that state attesting to the sufficiency of the evidence to support a conviction for first degree murder. Nothing in the findings of the extradition judge pursuant to the committal proceedings in Canada is inconsistent with the grand jury indictment, the warrant issued by the Superior Court in Arizona, or the certified opinion of the Deputy County Attorney. In these circumstances, surrendering F to face trial for first degree murder was not unreasonable. [79‑80] [85-86] [88]
Cases Cited
By Charron J.
Not followed: United States of America v. Reumayr, 2003 BCCA 375, 176 C.C.C. (3d) 377, leave to appeal refused, [2006] 1 S.C.R. xiv; United States of America v. Gorcyca, 2007 ONCA 76, 216 C.C.C. (3d) 403; Canada (Minister of Justice) v. Saad, 2007 ONCA 75, 216 C.C.C. (3d) 393; United States of America v. Kissel, 2008 ONCA 208, 89 O.R. (3d) 481; Karas v. Canada (Minister of Justice), 2007 BCCA 637, 233 C.C.C. (3d) 237; Narayan v. Canada (Minister of Justice), 2008 BCCA 280, 257 B.C.A.C. 121; referred to: Lake v. Canada (Minister of Justice), 2008 SCC 23, [2008] 1 S.C.R. 761; McVey (Re), [1992] 3 S.C.R. 475; Norris v. Government of the United States of America, [2008] UKHL 16, [2008] 2 All E.R. 1103; United States of America v. Johnson (2002), 62 O.R. (3d) 327; Bonamie, Re, 2001 ABCA 267, 293 A.R. 201; United States of America v. Cobb, 2001 SCC 19, [2001] 1 S.C.R. 587; Canada v. Schmidt, [1987] 1 S.C.R. 500; United States v. Burns, 2001 SCC 7, [2001] 1 S.C.R. 283; United States of America v. Saad (2004), 183 C.C.C. (3d) 97; Canada (Minister of Justice) v. Reumayr, 2005 BCCA 391, 199 C.C.C. (3d) 1; Kindler v. Canada (Minister of Justice), [1991] 2 S.C.R. 779; Argentina v. Mellino, [1987] 1 S.C.R. 536; United States of America v. Kwok, 2001 SCC 18, [2001] 1 S.C.R. 532; Ross v. United States of America (1994), 93 C.C.C. (3d) 500, aff’d [1996] 1 S.C.R. 469.
By Fish J.
Referred to: Karas v. Canada (Minister of Justice), 2009 BCCA 1, 240 C.C.C. (3d) 293; Lake v. Canada (Minister of Justice), 2008 SCC 23, [2008] 1 S.C.R. 761; United States of America v. Saad (2004), 183 C.C.C. (3d) 97; United States of America v. Gorcyca, 2007 ONCA 76, 216 C.C.C. (3d) 403; Canada (Minister of Justice) v. Saad, 2007 ONCA 75, 216 C.C.C. (3d) 393; United States of America v. Whitley (1994), 94 C.C.C. (3d) 99, aff’d [1996] 1 S.C.R. 467; United States of America v. Kissel, 2008 ONCA 208, 89 O.R. (3d) 481; State v. Thompson, 204 Ariz. 471 (2003); State v. Kiles, 213 P.3d 174 (2009).
Statutes and Regulations Cited
Ariz. Rev. Stat. §§ 13‑603, 13‑604, 13‑703, 13‑710, 13‑1105.
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, s. 7 .
Criminal Code, R.S.C. 1985, c. C‑46, s. 231 .
Extradition Act, S.C. 1999, c. 18, ss. 3(1) , (2) , 15 , 23(2) , 29 , 33 , 40(1) , 43(1) , 44 , 46 , 47 , 48(1) , 57(2) , (7) , 58 , 71 .
Federal Courts Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. F‑7, s. 18.1 .
Treaties and Other International Instruments
Extradition Treaty between Canada and the United States of America, Can. T.S. 1976 No. 3, arts. 2, 9, 10.
Authors Cited
La Forest, Anne Warner. La Forest’s Extradition to and from Canada, 3rd ed. Aurora, Ont.: Canada Law Book, 1991.
APPEAL from a judgment of the Ontario Court of Appeal (Doherty and MacFarland JJ.A. and Kent J. (ad hoc), 2008 ONCA 571, 91 O.R. (3d) 401, 239 O.A.C. 211, 235 C.C.C. (3d) 45, [2008] O.J. No. 3029 (QL), 2008 CarswellOnt 4594, quashing a surrender order and remitting the matter to the Minister of Justice of Canada for further consideration. Appeal allowed.
Janet Henchey and Nancy Dennison, for the appellant.
Gregory Lafontaine and Vincenzo Rondinelli, for the respondent.
The judgment of McLachlin C.J. and Binnie, LeBel, Deschamps, Abella, Charron, Rothstein and Cromwell JJ. was delivered by
Charron J. —
1. Overview
[1] Henry Fischbacher was indicted on a charge of first degree murder by a grand jury in Tucson, Arizona, in relation to the death of his wife. The United States has requested his extradition to stand trial on that charge. The Minister of Justice (the “Minister”) authorized the extradition request to proceed to a committal hearing, identifying the Canadian offence corresponding to the alleged criminal conduct as “Murder, contrary to section 231 of the Criminal Code ”, R.S.C. 1985, c. C-46 . The extradition judge committed Mr. Fischbacher for the offence of second degree murder, finding no evidence of planning and deliberation sufficient to justify a committal for first degree murder under Canadian law. No appeal was taken from the committal order. The Minister then ordered Mr. Fischbacher’s surrender for the American offence of first degree murder, as requested by the United States.
[2] Mr. Fischbacher sought judicial review of the Minister’s decision before the Court of Appeal for Ontario. He conceded that he could be returned to the State of Arizona to face trial on a charge of second degree murder in accordance with the finding of the extradition judge, but argued that the Minister’s decision to surrender him on the charge of first degree murder was unreasonable. In support of this argument, Mr. Fischbacher relied on expert opinion evidence filed with the Minister indicating that, much as proof of planning and deliberation is required to constitute the offence of first degree murder in Canada, premeditation is a necessary element of the offence according to Arizona law. He also relied on appellate decisions that have concluded that a “misalignment” between the offence for which the Minister ordered surrender and the offence supported by the evidence at the committal hearing may render a surrender decision unreasonable: see, e.g., United States of America v. Reumayr, 2003 BCCA 375, 176 C.C.C. (3d) 377, leave to appeal refused, [2006] 1 S.C.R. xiv; United States of America v. Gorcyca, 2007 ONCA 76, 216 C.C.C. (3d) 403; Canada (Minister of Justice) v. Saad, 2007 ONCA 75, 216 C.C.C. (3d) 393; and United States of America v. Kissel, 2008 ONCA 208, 89 O.R. (3d) 481.
[3] The Court of Appeal accepted Mr. Fischbacher’s argument: 2008 ONCA 571, 91 O.R. (3d) 401. In its view, his attack on the surrender order did not engage the principle of double criminality, as contended by the Minister. Double criminality, which requires a finding that the conduct giving rise to the foreign charge also constitutes an offence under Canadian law, was “clearly” respected in this case (para. 16). The question, rather, was whether the Minister acted unreasonably in deciding that it was not unjust to order Mr. Fischbacher’s surrender for the “clearly more serious allegation of first degree murder”, in the circumstances (para. 41). Given the absence of any evidence on the essential element of premeditation at the committal proceeding, the Court of Appeal concluded that the Minister’s decision was unreasonable. The matter was remitted to the Minister for reconsideration.
[4] In deciding how the principle of double criminality should be satisfied, it was open to Parliament to define the crimes for which extradition may be sought and ordered either in terms of the alleged conduct, or the elements of the foreign offence. Canada’s chosen approach is unquestionably conduct-based. Thus, extradition is permitted when the conduct underlying the foreign offence, if it occurred in Canada, would constitute an offence in Canadian law, however named or characterized. So long as the offence also falls in the category of extraditable offences, defined by the Extradition Act, S.C. 1999, c. 18 (the “Act ”), double criminality is fulfilled. This approach is not only consistent with prevailing international practice, it also accords with the principle of comity which demands deference and respect for the laws of other nations.
[5] I respectfully disagree with the conclusion of the court below that Mr. Fischbacher’s argument does not engage the principle of double criminality. The “misalignment” test invites the Minister to compare the foreign offence to its Canadian equivalent in a manner that is inconsistent with the conduct-based approach to double criminality. By requiring that the Minister satisfy himself that the conduct upon which the extradition judge found double criminality also establishes all the elements of the foreign offence, the “misalignment” test effectively imports an offence-based test for double criminality at the final stage of the extradition process, an approach that is incompatible with both the Act and the relevant extradition treaty, the Extradition Treaty between Canada and the United States of America, Can. T.S. 1976 No. 3 (“Treaty”), in force March 22, 1976. As this case exemplifies, the “misalignment” test would require the Minister to effectively second-guess the foreign state’s assessment of its own law, an approach which also finds no support in the Act and which offends the fundamental principle of comity. Finally, the test conflicts with the circumscribed role of the extradition judge defined under the Act and affirmed by settled jurisprudence.
[6] That said, the Act gives the Minister a broad discretion on the question of surrender and, as I will explain below, differences between the jeopardy faced by the person sought in the foreign country and that which he would face in Canada in respect of the impugned conduct may be a relevant factor in the surrender decision in exceptional circumstances. Ultimately, however, the reasonableness of the Minister’s decision does not turn on whether the elements of the foreign offence “align” with the evidence adduced by the requesting state during the committal hearing. The reasonableness of the decision must be assessed having regard to all the relevant circumstances and in accordance with the applicable provisions of the Act . In the instant appeal, I see no basis for interfering with the Minister’s decision.
[7] For the reasons that follow, I would allow the appeal and restore the Minister’s surrender order.
2. The Extradition Request and the Committal and Surrender Orders
[8] In October 2006, a grand jury in Tucson, Arizona, issued a criminal indictment charging Mr. Fischbacher with one count of first degree murder contrary to the Arizona Criminal Code, Ariz. Rev. Stat. §§ 13-1105, 13-603, 13-604, 13-703 and 13-710, in relation to the death of his wife, Lisa Fischbacher.
[9] The United States requested Mr. Fischbacher’s extradition from Canada for the offence of first degree murder in December 2006, by way of diplomatic note.
[10] On January 8, 2007, the Minister issued an authority to proceed (“ATP”) in accordance with s. 15 of the Act . The ATP sought the committal of Mr. Fischbacher for the corresponding Canadian offence of “Murder, contrary to section 231 of the Criminal Code ” but did not particularize the crime as first or second degree murder.
[11] The judicial phase of the extradition process took place in June 2007 in the Ontario Superior Court of Justice. The evidence tendered at the hearing was comprised of the certified record of the case and certified amended record of the case filed by the United States, in conformity with s. 33 of the Act . At this time, it was confirmed that the Department of Justice had received assurances to the effect that the state of Arizona would not seek the death penalty in the event of conviction.
[12] The evidence contained in the record of the case alleges that on October 6, 2006, Mr. Fischbacher telephoned his sister and disclosed that the previous day he and his wife had an argument during which he punched his wife in the face and hit her on the back of the head with a flashlight, knocking her unconscious. Mr. Fischbacher stated that he dragged his unconscious wife from the bedroom to the backyard pool, where he held her head underwater for several minutes until he believed she was dead. He fled his home around midnight, drove to the airport in Phoenix, Arizona, and flew to Buffalo, New York, where he leased a car and crossed the border into Canada.
[13] The record of the case further indicates that Ms. Fischbacher’s body was discovered by police around 5 p.m. on October 6, 2006, floating face down in the backyard swimming pool at her home. An autopsy confirmed that Ms. Fischbacher died from asphyxia and multiple traumatic head injuries.
[14] Relying on the Canadian approach to determining whether an indictment is for first or second degree murder, the extradition judge decided that the Minister’s selection of the word “murder” in the ATP must be taken to mean second degree murder in Canadian law. The United States requested that the judge authorize an amendment to the ATP pursuant to s. 23(2) of the Act , so that the corresponding Canadian offence would read “first degree murder” instead of “murder” simpliciter. The extradition judge concluded that planning and deliberation were necessary elements of the crime of first degree murder in Canada, and that there was no evidence of planning and deliberation in the record of the case. Accordingly, the request to amend the ATP was refused. The judge concluded, however, that the evidence was sufficient to establish a prima facie case of second degree murder. Pursuant to s. 71 of the Act , an order was issued for the committal of Mr. Fischbacher on the Canadian offence of second degree murder: [2007] O.J. No. 4235 (QL).
[15] No appeal was taken from the decision of the extradition judge.
[16] Following committal, it fell to the Minister to determine whether Mr. Fischbacher should be surrendered and, if so, for what offence. In accordance with s. 43(1) of the Act , Mr. Fischbacher made submissions to the Minister on the question of surrender, taking the position that he could be surrendered for the American offence of second degree murder. Mr. Fischbacher supplied the Minister with an opinion from an Arizona lawyer that the element of premeditation necessary to make out first degree murder under Arizona law is akin to the planning and deliberation elements of first degree murder in Canada. Relying on Reumayr and Gorcyca, Mr. Fischbacher argued that a surrender order for first degree murder would “substantially exceed” the evidence supporting the committal order and was therefore unjust.
[17] On March 17, 2008, the Minister issued an order pursuant to s. 58 of the Act surrendering Mr. Fischbacher for the American offence of first degree murder, as requested by the United States. In his reasons for surrender, the Minister rejected Mr. Fischbacher’s submissions on the basis that the application of foreign law is a matter for the requesting state. The Minister stated that double criminality was established by virtue of Mr. Fischbacher’s committal for second degree murder, and the decision of the extradition judge did not preclude the Minister’s discretion to order surrender for the requested offence of first degree murder.
[18] Mr. Fischbacher sought judicial review of the Minister’s surrender order.
3. Judicial Review — Court of Appeal for Ontario
[19] Before the Court of Appeal for Ontario, Mr. Fischbacher acknowledged that the Act affords the Minister a broad discretion on the question of surrender, but pointed out that pursuant to s. 44(1) (a) of the Act , the Minister is obliged to refuse a request to surrender if he is satisfied that “the surrender would be unjust or oppressive having regard to all the relevant circumstances”. Mr. Fischbacher argued that it was unreasonable for the Minister to conclude that it was not unjust to surrender him for first degree murder. The Minister’s exercise of discretion was alleged to be unjust because the extradition judge determined that there was no evidence of planning and deliberation sufficient to satisfy all the elements of first degree murder. Mr. Fischbacher asked the court to quash the surrender order.
[20] The Court of Appeal agreed. Doherty J.A., writing for a unanimous court, found that Mr. Fischbacher’s attack on the reasonableness of the Minister’s decision did not engage the double criminality principle (para. 16) and was based “exclusively on what the case law describes as a ‘misalignment’ between the offence for which the Minister ordered the applicant surrendered and evidence adduced at the committal proceedings” (para. 21). Citing as authority for this “misalignment” rule the appellate cases of Reumayr, Gorcyca, Saad and Kissel, Doherty J.A. concluded that “differences between the offence in the surrender order and the offence for which the fugitive was committed will render the surrender order unreasonable only in limited circumstances” (para. 25). He defined these “limited circumstances” as those where no evidence of an essential element of the foreign charge is led at the committal hearing. To order the surrender of a person sought on a foreign charge in support of which there was no evidence before the extradition judge was deemed an unreasonable exercise of the Minister’s discretion.
[21] In light of the principles drawn from the “misalignment” jurisprudence, Doherty J.A. was of the view that, given the conclusion of the committal judge that there was no evidence to support a finding of premeditation (which he implicitly accepted as equivalent to planning and deliberation in Canadian law), the Minister’s decision to surrender Mr. Fischbacher on the charge of first degree murder was “presumptively unreasonable, unless there is some adequate explanation from the Minister” (para. 33). The surrender order was quashed and the matter remitted to the Minister for reconsideration.
[22] For the reasons that follow, it is my respectful view that the Court of Appeal erred in applying the “misalignment” test to conclude that it was unreasonable for the Minister to have surrendered Mr. Fischbacher for the requested offence of first degree murder.
4. Analysis
[23] Extradition from Canada is generally said to have two stages: one judicial and one executive: Lake v. Canada (Minister of Justice), 2008 SCC 23, [2008] 1 S.C.R. 761, at para. 21. This case concerns the executive’s role, which bookends the judicial phase, as the Minister holds a discretionary power at the outset and the close of the extradition process.
[24] The issue in this appeal is whether, in exercising his discretion under the Act to order the surrender of a person sought at the final stage of the extradition process, the Minister is required to ensure “alignment” between the foreign offence upon which surrender is ordered and the evidence adduced at the extradition hearing. In order to properly assess the scope of the Minister’s discretion, it will be useful to review all the stages of Canada’s extradition procedure prior to addressing the specific issue raised by this appeal.
[25] Canada’s international obligation to surrender fugitives from justice to other states is a product of numerous treaties concluded with various extradition partners, including the Treaty between Canada and the United States, relevant to the present appeal. The Extradition Act implements Canada’s extradition treaties into domestic law so that, from a domestic standpoint, extradition is entirely “a creature of statute”: McVey (Re), [1992] 3 S.C.R. 475, at p. 508. Accordingly, the Minister’s role and breadth of his discretion can only be understood with reference to the legislative scheme established by the Act . I begin with some brief comments about double criminality, a fundamental principle of the extradition process codified by the Act .
[26] Double criminality requires that the conduct forming the basis of the extradition request be criminal under the law of both the requesting and the requested countries. The purpose of double criminality is to safeguard the liberty of an individual whose extradition is sought by ensuring that he or she is not surrendered to face prosecution in another country for conduct that would not amount to a criminal offence in the country of refuge. This principle is internationally recognized as central to extradition law. Double criminality is a clause in all of Canada’s extradition treaties (see, e.g., Articles 2 and 10 of the Treaty) and is codified in s. 3(1) of the Act :
3. (1) [General principle] A person may be extradited from Canada in accordance with this Act and a relevant extradition agreement on the request of an extradition partner for the purpose of prosecuting the person or imposing a sentence on — or enforcing a sentence imposed on — the person if
(a) subject to a relevant extradition agreement, the offence in respect of which the extradition is requested is punishable by the extradition partner, by imprisoning or otherwise depriving the person of their liberty for a maximum term of two years or more, or by a more severe punishment; and
(b) the conduct of the person, had it occurred in Canada, would have constituted an offence that is punishable in Canada,
(i) in the case of a request based on a specific agreement, by imprisonment for a maximum term of five years or more, or by a more severe punishment, and
(ii) in any other case, by imprisonment for a maximum term of two years or more, or by a more severe punishment, subject to a relevant extradition agreement.
[27] As the term implies, double criminality has two components, one foreign and one domestic. Section 3(1) (a) codifies the foreign aspect of double criminality by requiring that the offence upon which extradition is requested be criminal in the requesting state and carry the specified penalty. Paragraph (b) of s. 3(1) describes the domestic aspect of double criminality, which requires that the conduct underlying the foreign offence amount to a criminal offence under Canadian law with the specified penalty. Both elements must be satisfied before double criminality is made out.
[28] In theory, double criminality may be satisfied on one of two possible approaches: a conduct-based or an offence-based test. In Norris v. Government of the United States of America, [2008] UKHL 16, [2008] 2 All E.R. 1103, the House of Lords considered these methodologies for interpreting extradition legislation (at para. 65):
[I]t is useful to stand back from the detail and recognise the essential choice that the legislature makes in deciding just what the double criminality principle requires. It is possible to define the crimes for which extradition is to be sought and ordered (extradition crimes) in terms either of conduct or of the elements of the foreign offence. That is the fundamental choice. The court can be required to make the comparison and to look for the necessary correspondence either between the offence abroad (for which the accused’s extradition is sought) and an offence here, or between the conduct alleged against the accused abroad and an offence here. For convenience these may be called respectively the offence test and the conduct test. It need hardly be pointed out that if the offence test is adopted the requested state will invariably have to examine the legal ingredients of the foreign offence to ensure that there is no mismatch between it and the supposedly corresponding domestic offence.
[29] Consistent with the vast majority of international practice, Canada has adopted the conduct-based approach to determining double criminality, codified in s. 3(2) of the Act :
(2) [Conduct determinative] For greater certainty, it is not relevant whether the conduct referred to in subsection (1) is named, defined or characterized by the extradition partner in the same way as it is in Canada.
As a result, it is not necessary that the Canadian offence described in the ATP or the committal order “match” the foreign offence for which the person is sought or surrendered in name or in terms of its constituent elements; it is “the essence of the offence” that is important on the conduct-based approach: A. W. La Forest, La Forest’s Extradition to and from Canada (3rd ed. 1991), at p. 69.
[30] The extradition process begins when a request for extradition from Canada is made to the Minister in accordance with Article 9 of the Treaty. The Minister decides whether to authorize the request to proceed to a committal hearing in accordance with s. 15(1) of the Act , which sets out the Minister’s power as follows:
15. (1) The Minister may, after receiving a request for extradition and being satisfied that the conditions set out in paragraph 3(1) (a) and subsection 3(3) are met in respect of one or more offences mentioned in the request, issue an authority to proceed that authorizes the Attorney General to seek, on behalf of the extradition partner, an order of a court for the committal of the person under section 29 .
In making the determination required by ss. 15(1) and 3(1) (a) of the Act , the Minister will necessarily consider the law of the foreign state, which is provided as part of the extradition request under Article 9 of the Treaty. The Minister must satisfy himself that the alleged conduct described in the extradition request is criminal in the foreign jurisdiction, and that the associated penalty meets the threshold established by s. 3(1) (a), or the relevant treaty, where applicable. In other words, the Minister must determine, in accordance with s. 3(1) (a), whether the foreign component of double criminality is satisfied. If so, he will issue an ATP pursuant to s. 15 .
[31] An ATP permits the Attorney General, acting on behalf of the extradition partner, to initiate extradition proceedings before a superior court judge, called the extradition or committal judge in this context, to seek an order for the committal of the person sought. Section 15(3) of the Act provides that an ATP must contain three elements:
(3) The authority to proceed must contain
(a) the name or description of the person whose extradition is sought;
(b) the name of the extradition partner; and
(c) the name of the offence or offences under Canadian law that correspond to the alleged conduct of the person or the conduct in respect of which the person was convicted, as long as one of the offences would be punishable in accordance with paragraph 3(1) (b).
[32] An ATP is akin to an information or indictment in a domestic prosecution in that the corresponding Canadian offence or offences listed in an ATP provide the focus of the determination to be made at the judicial stage. Accordingly, care must be taken to ensure that an ATP accurately identifies the Canadian offence that most closely resembles the alleged conduct underlying the foreign offence. This will necessarily require the Minister, in drafting the ATP, to undertake some limited interpretation of the domestic law.
[33] If an ATP does not identify the most appropriate Canadian offence, s. 23(2) of the Act authorizes a committal judge, upon application by the Attorney General, to amend an ATP to accord with the evidence produced by the requesting state in the course of the extradition hearing.
[34] With an ATP in hand, counsel for the Attorney General may then proceed to bring the matter before an extradition judge who conducts an extradition hearing in accordance with the Act .
[35] The function of an extradition hearing is to determine whether the domestic component of double criminality is met, as required by s. 3(1) (b) of the Act . The Act clearly establishes that the province of the extradition judge is limited to consideration of only the domestic side of this issue, as the Minister has already established that the foreign component of double criminality is satisfied. Accordingly, the role of the extradition judge does not include any review of the foreign law. Section 29 delineates the judge’s role as follows:
29. (1) [Order of committal] A judge shall order the committal of the person into custody to await surrender if
(a) in the case of a person sought for prosecution, there is evidence admissible under this Act of conduct that, had it occurred in Canada, would justify committal for trial in Canada on the offence set out in the authority to proceed and the judge is satisfied that the person is the person sought by the extradition partner;
The judge must consider the evidence in light of Canadian law and determine whether it reveals conduct that would justify committal for the crime listed in the ATP if it had occurred in Canada. In McVey, at pp. 527-28, La Forest J. explained the role of the extradition judge as follows:
The trial judge in the United States, of course, deals with the offence under the law of that country. The identity of that offence can be determined by reference to the text of that law supplied with the requisition. The extradition judge in Canada, on the other hand, is concerned with whether the underlying facts of the charge would, prima facie, have constituted a crime . . . if they had occurred in Canada. That is what is meant by saying that double criminality is conduct based. The courts of both countries deal with the offence under their own law, the law in which they are versed, but each must ascertain whether under that law the facts support the charge. [Emphasis added.]
If the extradition judge concludes that the impugned conduct would amount to a criminal offence in Canadian law, the domestic component of double criminality is satisfied and the person sought must be committed for extradition.
[36] Following committal, the matter reverts to the Minister who reviews the case in its entirety to determine whether to order the individual’s surrender and, if so, on what basis. This requires the Minister to determine whether it is politically appropriate and not fundamentally unjust for Canada to extradite the person sought. Section 40(1) of the Act sets out the Minister’s general power on the question of surrender:
40. (1) The Minister may, within a perio