House of Lords decision establishing the doctrine of secret trusts, holding that equity will enforce secret trusts to prevent fraud, even though they appear to contradict statutory formality requirements for wills.

The Court of Appeal held that a resulting trust can be extinguished by the trustee's subsequent conduct showing intention to hold on express trust terms.

Roxburgh J held that non-charitable purpose trusts are generally void for lack of beneficiaries who can enforce them. The case established the beneficiary principle as a fundamental requirement for private trusts.

Court of Appeal established the 'is or is not' test for conceptual certainty in discretionary trusts. Even if it is difficult to determine whether marginal cases fall within a class, the trust is valid if clear cases can be identified.

A trust of intangible property need not identify specific assets from a larger identical mass.

The House of Lords established that secret trusts can exist even when the will makes a beneficial gift to the secret trustee, provided the trustee accepts the trust obligation.

Court of Appeal decision establishing that trusts for the advancement of religion among a restricted class can be charitable, provided the restriction relates to faith rather than creating an essentially private trust.

House of Lords clarifies crucial distinction between trusts and powers

Paul v Constance established that informal words can create an express trust without using technical language. The case demonstrates that saying 'this money is as much yours as mine' can constitute a valid declaration of trust if the intention is clear from the circumstances.

Purpose trusts valid when beneficiaries have direct enforceable interest

Boardman v Phipps established that fiduciaries who make unauthorized profits using information obtained through their position must account for those profits, even if they acted honestly and the principal benefited. The case clarified the strict liability nature of the fiduciary no-profit rule in English law.

Trustee cannot claim benefit of doubt when mixing trust funds with own money

House of Lords revolutionizes trust law by requiring causation for breach claims

Trustees cannot profit from their position even without fraud or misconduct

Equity can perfect imperfect share gifts when unconscionable to withdraw

Court establishes three certainties doctrine for valid trust creation

Incomplete trust dispositions cannot escape beneficial ownership for tax purposes

House of Lords established that discretionary trusts must satisfy the 'complete list' test for certainty of objects. This strict test required trustees to be able to compile a comprehensive list of all possible beneficiaries.

Milroy v Lord established the fundamental principle that for a gift to be valid, it must be completely constituted either by transfer of legal title (whether to the donee outright or to trustees) or by declaration of trust. The case demonstrates that an imperfect gift cannot be saved by treating it as a declaration of trust unless there is clear evidence of such intention.

Secret trusts can be established by clear evidence of intention, communication and acceptance.

Brightman J held that gifts to unincorporated associations can be valid as gifts to members beneficially, applying the contract-holding theory. This provided a solution for gifts to associations that would otherwise fail as purpose trusts.

House of Lords clarifies tracing rules for mixed trust funds

Contractual licences with equity can bind third party purchasers with notice

Contracts for equitable interests need separate written disposition despite specific enforceability

Property rights require definiteness, identifiability, and third-party enforceability to constitute proprietary interests.

Educational trusts must benefit sufficient section of public, not just company employees' relatives.

Equity treats valid lease agreements as if leases already granted

Gift complete in equity when donor does everything in their power

Woman gains property interest through detrimental reliance despite no financial contribution

Proprietary estoppel may fail where equity has been satisfied by acquiescence

Chief Rabbi clause valid; expert determination can cure conceptual uncertainty in trusts

Mistaken payments create immediate constructive trusts giving equitable proprietary interests.

House of Lords relaxes certainty test for discretionary trusts

Illegal trust participants can recover property without relying on illegality

Restrictive covenants can bind future landowners in equity despite lack of privity